Menu:

 

 

Volume 11, Issue 1 - March 2011

 

Download (948KB, PDF)

 

 

  • Abstract / Resumo
  • References / Bibliografia
  • Citations / Citações

Revista de Gestão Costeira Integrada
Volume 11, Número 1, Março 2011, Páginas 115-134

DOI: 10.5894/rgci207
Submission – 30 Março 2010; Evaluation – 24 Maio 2010; Reception of revised manuscript – 16 Junho 2010; Available on-line – 14 July 2010

Anthropogenic litter in the SE Pacific: an overview of the problem and possible solutions *

Resíduos sólidos antropogênicos no Pacífico SE: uma revisão do problema e soluções possíveis

Martin Thiel @, 1, 2, Macarena Bravo 1, Iván A. Hinojosa 1,
Guillermo Luna 1,2, Leonardo Miranda1, Paloma Núñez 1,
Aldo S. Pacheco 3 & Nelson Vásquez 1,4


@ Corresponding Author. Tel.: +56-51-209939; fax: +56-51-209812. E-mail: thiel@ucn.cl
1Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo, Chile
2Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas (CEAZA), Coquimbo, Chile
3Universidad de Antofagasta, Facultad de Recursos del Mar, Av. Angamos 601, P.O. Box 170, Antofagasta, Chile
4Ilustre Municipalidad de Los Vilos, AV Caupolican 309, Los Vilos, Chile


ABSTRACT
Litter from anthropogenic sources is commonly observed on beaches in the SE Pacific. The composition of litter found on the shore suggests that most of it has passed relatively little time at sea, and has mostly local sources. In southern Chile, stray items from aquaculture installations comprise most of the garbage, whereas in central and northern Chile and in Peru, general household litter is most common. Abundances are highest in areas with intense human activities, i.e. harbors, cities, and aquaculture centers. Impacts on the marine life are commonly observed, but have not been systematically studied in the SE Pacific. Estimated costs of litter on local beaches are high, as underlined by the high costs of beach cleaning, especially during the annual tourist season. Current data suggest that beaches without regular cleaning activities accumulate large amounts of litter. Regulations are in place to avoid littering at sea and on beaches, but law enforcement is limited mainly because the governmental bodies in charge are understaffed. Therefore, the most viable option to reduce the amount of litter is to reduce its production in the first place, improve reuse and recycling, and enhance environmental awareness. Several governmental and non-governmental organisations develop education programs that incorporate environmental aspects. The geographic coverage of these programs should be expanded. Furthermore, there is a need for long-term programs that inform the public about the need to reduce the amounts of waste and increase reuse and recycling in all sectors of society.

Keywords: beach litter; anthropogenic marine debris; beach survey; volunteer participation; environmental education; plastics.

RESUMO
Resíduos de fontes antropogênicas são comumente observados nas praias do sudeste (SE) do Pacífico. A composição do lixo encontrado na costa sugere que a maioria deles passou relativamente pouco tempo no mar, e tem principalmente fontes locais. No sul do Chile, itens perdidos das instalações de aqüicultura compreendem a maioria do lixo, enquanto que na região central e norte do Chile e no Peru, materiais domésticos são mais comuns. Abundâncias são maiores em áreas com intensa atividade humana, isto é, portos, cidades e centros de aqüicultura. Impactos sobre a vida marinha são comumente observados, mas não têm sido sistematicamente estudados no Pacífico SE. Os custos estimados do lixo nas praias locais são elevados, com destaque para os altos custos de limpeza de praia, especialmente durante a estação turística anual. Os dados atuais sugerem que as praias sem atividades regulares de limpeza acumulam grandes quantidades de lixo. Foram implantados regulamentos para evitar o lançamento de lixo no mar e nas praias, mas a aplicação da lei é limitada, principalmente porque os órgãos governamentais responsáveis não possuem mão-de-obra suficiente. A opção mais viável para reduzir a quantidade de lixo é, em primeiro lugar, a redução da produção do lixo, além de melhorar a reutilização e reciclagem e aumentar a conscientização ambiental. Várias organizações governamentais e não-governamentais desenvolvem programas de educação que incorporaram aspectos ambientais. A cobertura geográfica destes programas deve ser ampliada. Além disso, há a necessidade de programas de longo prazo que informem o público sobre a necessidade de reduzir as quantidades de resíduos e aumentar a reutilização e a reciclagem em todos os segmentos da sociedade.

Palavras-chave: lixo praial; lixo marinho antropogênico; monitoramento de praia; participação de voluntários, educação ambiental; plásticos.

 

Alvial, A.; Reculé, D. (1999) – Fundación Chile and the integrated management of the coastal zones. Ocean & Coastal Management, 42(2-4):143-154. DOI:10.1016/S0964-5691(98)00050-7.

Astudillo, J.C.; Bravo, M.; Dumont, C.P.; Thiel, M. (2009) – Detached aquaculture buoys in the SE Pacific – a potential dispersal vehicle for associated organisms. Aquatic Biology 5:219-231. DOI:10.3354/ab00151.

Ballance A.; Ryan, P.G.; Turpie, J.K. (2000) - How much is a clean beach worth? The impact of litter on beach users in the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 96: 210–213. ISSN: 0038-2353.

Barnes, D.K.; Milner, P. (2005) - Drifting plastic and its consequences for sessile organism dispersal in the Atlantic Ocean. Marine Biology, 146(4):815-825. DOI:10.1007/s00227-004-1474-8.

Barnes, D.K.A.; Galgani, F.; Thompson, R.C.; Barlaz, M. (2009) - Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364:1985-1998. DOI:10.1098/rstb.2008.0205.

Barragán, J.M.; Castro, C.; Alvarado, C. (2005) – Towards integrated coastal zone management in Chile. Coastal Management (ISSN: 1521-0421), 33(1):1-24.

Boland, R. & Donohue, M.J. (2003) – Marine debris accumulation in the aquatic habitat of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi: an impediment to species ç recovery? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46(11):1385-1394. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(03)00291-1.

Boren, L.J.; Morrissey, M.; Muller, C.G.; Gemmell, N.J. (2006) – Entanglement of New Zealand fur seals in man-made debris at Kaikoura, New Zealand. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52(4):442-446. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.12.003.

Bourne, W.R.P.; Clarke, G.C. (1984) – The occurrence of birds and garbage at the Humboldt Front off Valparaiso Chile. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 15(9):343–344. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(84)90493-4.

Bravo, M.; Gallardo, M. de los Angeles; Luna-Jorquera, G.; Nunez, P.; Vasquez, N.; Thiel, M. (2009) – Anthropogenic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): results of a national survey supported by volunteers. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58(11):1718-17268. (DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.017).

Brito, J.L. (2002) – Muertes de Puffinus griseus en redes de pesca de cerco industrial y artesanal en la costa de Santonio, region de Valparaiso, Chile. Boletín Chileno de Ornitología (ISSN: 0717-1897), 9:33-34, Santiago, Chile. (http://www.unorch.cl/boletin/PDF/9/33-34-bco9-(2002)-jbrito-muerte-
piffinus-griseus-pesca.pdf
)

Campanario, J.M. (2002) – Asalto al Castillo: ¿Qué esperamos para abordar en serio la formación didáctica en los profesores Universitarios de ciencias? Enseñanza de las Ciencias (ISSN: 0212-4521), 20:315-325, Barcelona, Espanha.

Castilla, J.C.; Neill, P.E. (2009) – Marine bioinvasions in the Southeastern Pacific: status, ecology, economic impacts, conservation and management. In: Rilov G. & Crooks J.A. (eds.), Biological Invasions of Marine Ecosystems, pp 439–457, Ecological Studies 204, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany. ISBN: 9783540792352.

Código Penal del Perú – Legislación Penal - Compendio de Normas Ambientales. Lima, Peru.

Coe, J.M.; Rogers, D.B. (eds.) (1997) - Marine Debris: Sources, Impacts, and Solutions. 432p., Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA. ISBN: 9780387947594.

Colton, J.B.; Knapp, F.D.; Burns, B.R. (1974) - Plastic particles in the surface water of the northwestern Atlantic. Science, 185(4150):491-497. DOI:10.1126/science.185.4150.491.

Comisión Nacional del Medio Ambiente (2005) – Política de Gestión Integral de Residuos Sólidos. 74p., CONAMA, Santiago, Chile.

Criddle, K.R.; Amos, A.F.; Carroll, P.; Coe, J.M.; Donohue, M.J.; Harris, J.H.; Kim, K.; MacDonald, A.; Metcalf, K.; Rieser, A.; Young, N. M. (2009) - Tackling Marine Debris in the 21st Century. 206p., The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., USA. ISBN: 9780309126977.

Cunningham, D.J.; Wilson, S.P. (2003) - Marine debris on beaches of the Greater Sydney region. Journal of Coastal Research, 19:421-430.

Dameron, O.J.; Parke, M.; Albins, M.A.; Brainard, R. (2007) – Marine debris accumulation in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: An examination of rates and processes. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54(4):423–433. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.019.

Dayton, P.K.; Thrush, S.F.; Agardy, M.T.; Hofman, R.J. (1995) – Environmental effects of marine fishing. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 5(3):205-232. DOI:10.1002/aqc.3270050305.

den Brok, P.; Fisher, D.; Rickards, T.; Bull, E.
(2006) – Californian science students´ perceptions of their classroom learning environments. Educational Research and Evaluations, 12(1):3-25. DOI:10.1080/13803610500392053.

Derraik, J.G.B. (2002) - The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 44(9):842-852. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5

Diario el Mercurio de Valparaíso (s/d) – Municipios ajustan control de basura por incremento de turistas. Valparaíso, Chile. In: http://www.mercuriovalpo.cl/prontus4_noticias/site/artic/20091011/
pags/20091011010404.html
. (accessed 19 March 2010)

Dirección General del Territorio Marítimo y Marina Mercante (1994) – Reglamento para el Control de la contaminación acuática. 1º Edicion. 45p., Oficina de reglamentos y publicaciones marítimas. Valparaiso, Chile.

Fernández-Manzanal, R.; Casal-Jiménez, M. (1995) – La enseñanza de la ecología. Un objetivo de la Educación Ambiental. Enseñanza de las Ciencias (ISSN: 0212-4521), 13:295-311, Barcelona, Espanha.

Flórez-González, L.; Ávila, I.C.; Capella, J.; Falk, P.; Félix, F.; Gibbons, J.; Guzmán, H.M.; Haase, B.; Herrera, J.C.; Peña, V.; Santillán, L.; Tobón I.C.; Van Waerebeek, K. (2007) – Estrategia para la conservación de la ballena jorobada del Pacífico Sudeste. Lineamientos de un plan de acción regional e iniciativas nacionales. 106p., Fundación Yubarta. Cali. Colombia. http://assets.panda.org/downloads/
ballenas_yubarta_2007.pdf

Fujieda, S. & Sasaki, K. (2005) – Stranded debris of foamed plastics on the coast of Eta Island and Kurahashi Island in Hiroshima Bay. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 71(5):755-761. http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/
article/suisan/71/5/755/_pdf

García-Godos, I. (2007) – Revisión de las interacciones entre cetáceos y la pesquería marina peruana; perspectivas para la conservación de los cetáceos en Perú. In: Félix F. (ed). Memorias del Taller de Trabajo sobre el Impacto de las Actividades Antropogénicas en Mamíferos Marinos en el Pacífico Sudeste. pp.77 – 82, CPPS/PNUMA Bogotá, Colombia.

García-Godos, I.; Goya, E.; Jahncke, J. (2002) – The diet of Markham’s Storm Petrel Oceanodroma markhami on the central coast of Peru. Marine Ornithology, (ISSN: 1018-33379), 30(2):77–83. http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/30_2/4_garcia.pdf

García, E. (2002) – Los problemas de la Educación Ambiental: ¿Es posible una educación ambiental integradora? Investigación en la Escuela (ISSN: 0213-7771 ), 46:1-21.

Gregory, M.R. (1991) – The hazards of persistent marine pollution: drift plastics and conservation islands. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand (ISSN: 0303-6758), 21:83-100, Wellington, Nova Zelândia.

Gregory, M.R.; Andrady, A.L. (2003) – Plastics in the Marine Environment. In: Anthony L. Andrady (ed.), Plastics and the Environment, pp.379–401, John Wiley & Sons Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA. ISBN: 9780471095200.

Gregory, M.R.; Ryan, P.G. (1997) - Pelagic Plastics and other seaborne persistent synthetic debris: a review of Southern Hemisphere perspectives. In: Coe, J. & Rogers, D. (eds.), Marine Debris: Sources, impacts and solutions. pp.49-66. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA. ISBN: 9780387947594.

Guerra-Correa, C.; Valenzuela, A.; Retamal, L.M.; Malinarich, A. (2007) – Influencia de los desechos plasticos en la sobrevivencia de tortugas: el caso de una Chelonia mydas en Antofagasta. VII Simposio sobre Medio Ambiente. Estado Actual y Perspectivas de la Investigación y Conservación de las Tortugas Marinas en las Costas del Pacífico Sur Oriental, Centro Regional de Estudios y Educación Ambiental, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile.

Herling, C.; Culik, B.M.; Hennicke J.C (2005) – Diet of the Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) in northern and southern Chile. Marine Biology, 147(1):13-25. DOI:10.1007/s00227-004-1547-8.

Hess, N.A.; Ribic, C.A.; Vining, I. (1999) - Benthic marine debris, with an emphasis on fishery-related items, surrounding Kodiak Island, Alaska, 1994–1996. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 38(10):885–890. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(99)00087-9.

Hinojosa, I.A.; Thiel, M. (2009) – Floating marine debris in fjords, gulfs and channels of southern Chile. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58(3):341-350. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.10.020.

Hinojosa, IA.; Rivadeneira, M.M.; Thiel, M. (2010) – Temporal and spatial distribution of floating objects in coastal waters of central-southern Chile and Patagonian fjords. Continental Shelf Research, 31(3-4):172-186. DOI:10.1016/j.csr.2010.04.013.

Hucke-Gaete, R.; Moreno, C.A.; Arata, J. (2004) – Operational interactions of sperm whales and killer whales with the patagonian tootfish industrial fishery off southern Chile. CCAMLR Science (ISSN:1023-4063), 11:127–140, Tasmania, Austrália. http://www.ccamlr.org/ccamlr_science/Vol-11-2004/
08huckegaete-etal.pdf

Huneeus, P. (2002) – Nuestra Mentalidad Económica. 253p., Editora Nueva Generación. Santiago, Chile.

Ilustre Municipalidad de La Serena (s/d) – Municipio de La Serena extenderá aseo de playas a Caleta San Pedro. Noticias Municipales. Área Comunicaciones. La Serena, Chile. In: http://www.laserena.cl/
comunicaciones/paginas/noticias_vista.php?id_not=6454&tipo=
municipal
(accessed 16 June 2010)

Ilustre municipalidad de Mejillones (2004) – Ordenanza de medio ambiente y sobre salubridad publica 16 de enero de 2004. 9p., Mejillones, Chile.

Ivar do Sul, J.A.; Costa, M. (2007) - Marine debris review for Latin America and the Wider Caribbean Region: from the 1970s until now, and where do we go from here. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54(8):1087-1104. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.05.004.

Katsanevakis, S. (2008) – Marine debris, a growing problem: sources, distribution, composition, and impacts. In: T.N. Hofer (ed.), Marine Pollution: New Research, pp.53-100, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, NY, USA. ISBN: 978-160456242.

Kirkley, J.; McConnell, K.E. (1997) – Marine debris: Benefits, costs and choices. In: Coe, J.M. & Rogers, D.B. (eds.), Marine Debris, pp.171-185, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA. ISBN: 0387947590.

Liffman, M.; Howard, B.; O’Hara, K.; Coe, J. (1997) - Strategies to reduce, control, and minimize land-source marine debris. In: Coe, J.M. & Rogers, D.B. (eds.), Marine Debris, pp.381-390, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA. ISBN: 0387947590.

Ludynia, K.; Garthe, S.; Luna-Jorquera, G. (2005) – Seasonal and regional variation in the diet of the Kelp Gull in northern Chile. Waterbirds (ISSN: 1524-469), 28:359-365. Waco, TX, USA.

Ludynia, K.; Garthe, S.; Luna-Jorquera, G. (2010) – Distribution and foraging behaviour of the Peruvian Booby (Sula variegata) off northern Chile. Journal of Ornithology, 151(1):103-111. DOI:10.1007/s10336-009-0431-1.

Mallin, M.A.; Corbett, C.A. (2006) – How hurricane attributes determine the extent of environmental effects: multiple hurricanes and different coastal systems. Estuaries and Coasts, 29(6):1046-1061. DOI:10.1007/BF02798667.

Martinez, E.; Maamaatuaiahutapu, K.; Taillandier, V. (2009) – Floating marine debris surface drift: Convergence and accumulation toward the South Pacific subtropical gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58(9):1347-1355. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.04.022.

Mascarenhas, R.; Santos, R.; Zeppelini, D. (2004) - Plastic debris ingestion by sea turtle in Paraíba, Brazil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 49(4):354-355. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.05.006

Ministerio de Educación (1998) – Objetivos Fundamentales y Contenidos Mínimos Obligatorios de la Educación Media. 395p., Ministerio de Educación, Santiago, Chile. ISBN: 956-7405-49-2. http://www.aep.mineduc.cl/images/pdf/2010/CurriculumMedia.pdf

Moore, C.J.; Moore, S.L.; Leecaster, M.K.; Weisberg, SB. (2001) - A comparison of plastic and plankton in the North Pacific central gyre. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 42(12):1297-1300. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00114-X.

Moreno, C.A.; Arata, J.; Rubilar, P.; Hucke-Gaete, R.; Robertson, G. (2006) – Artisanal longline fisheries in southern Chile: lessons to be learned to avoid incidental seabird mortality. Biological Conservation, 127(1):27–36. DOI:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.07.011.

Mrosovsky, N.; Ryan, G.D.; James, M.C. (2009) – Leatherback turtles: The menace of plastic. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58(2):287–289. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.10.018.

Novo, M. (2006) – El Desarrollo Sostenible. Su dimensión ambiental y educativa. 426p., Editorial Pearson y Organización de Naciones Unidas para la Educacioín, Ciencia y Cultura (UNESCO), Madrid, España.
ISBN: 9789568302672.

Organización Panamericana de la Salud (2004) – Análisis sectorial de residuos sólidos en el Ecuador. 275p., Organización panamericana de la salud, Organización mundial de la salud, División salud y ambiente, Quito, Ecuador.

Pegram, J.E.; Andrady, A.L. (1989) – Outdoor weathering of selected polymeric materials under marine exposure conditions. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 26(4):333–345. DOI:10.1016/0141-3910(89)90112-2.

Petry, M.V.; da Silva, V. S.; Krüger-Garcia, L.; da Cruz Piuco, R.; Brummelhaus, J. (2008) – Shearwater diet during migration along the coast of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Marine Biology, 154(4):613-621. DOI:10.1007/s00227-008-0954-7.

Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Television (s/d) – Reporteros. Teletrece online, Santiago, Chile. In: http://teletrece.canal13.cl/
t13/html/Secciones/Reporteros/369750.html
(accessed 16 June 2010)

Quintanilla, M., Adúriz-Bravo, A. (2006) – Enseñar Ciencias en el Nuevo Milenio: retos y propuestas. Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile. pp 342. ISBN: 9789561408654.

Republica de Chile, Senado (s/d) – Con multas de hasta $360 millones sancionarían a quienes boten basura en lugares no habilitados. Valparaiso, Chile. In: http://www.senado.cl/prontus_galeria_noticias/
site/artic/20090604/pags/20090604175600.html
. (accessed 16 June 2010)

Reserva Nacional Paracas (2007) – Informe anual Reserva Nacional Paracas. 23p., Ministerio de Agricultura, Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales, Perú (unpublished report).

Rovira, J. (2006) – Informe y diagnóstico de la basura marina en Chile. Plan de acción para la protección del medio marino y áreas costeras del Pacífico Sudeste. 56p., Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur (CPPS), Guayaquil Ecuador.

Ryan, P.G.; Moloney, C.L. (1993) – Marine litter keeps increasing. Nature, 361:23. DOI:10.1038/361023a0.

Ryan, P.G.; Moore, C.J.; van Franeker J.A.; Moloney, C.L. (2009) - Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment. Philosophical Transaction of Royal Society B, 364:1999-2012.

Sandweiss, D.H.; Solís, R.S.; Moseley, M.E.; Keefer, D.K.; Ortloff, C.R. (2009) – Environmental change and economic development in coastal Peru between 5800 and 3600 years ago. PNAS - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(5):1359-1363. DOI:10.1073/pnas.0812645106.

Santillan, L. (2008) – Analisis de la dieta Chelonia mydas agassizii “Tortuga verde del Pacifico” en la Bahía de Sechura, Piura, Perú. Unpublished Master Thesis, Universidad Nacional Agraria, La Molina, Lima, Perú.

Santos, I.R.; Friedrich, A.C.; Wallner-Kersanach, M.; Fillmann, G. (2005) - Influence of socio-economic characteristics of beach users on litter generation. Ocean & Coastal Management, 48(9-10):742-752. DOI:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2005.08.006.

Schlatter, R.P.; Paredes, E.; Ulloa, J.; Harris, J.; Romero, A.; Vasquez, J.; Lizama, A.; Hernández, C.; Simeone, A. (2010) – Mortandad de pingüino de Magallanes (Spheniscus magellanicus) en Queule (39º22’S y 73º13’W), región de La Araucanía, Chile. Boletín Chileno de Ornitología (ISSN: 0717-1897), in press, Santiago, Chile.

Silva, A.; Retamal, L.M.; Guerra-Correa, C. (2007) – Registros de tortugas marinas ingresadas al centro de rescate y rehabilitación de fauna silvestre. VII Simposio sobre Medio Ambiente. Estado Actual y Perspectivas de la Investigación y Conservación de las Tortugas Marinas en las Costas del Pacífico Sur Oriental, Centro Regional de Estudios y Educación Ambiental. Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile.

Simeone, A.; Bernal, M.; Meza, J. (1999) – Incidental mortality of Humboldt penguins Spheniscus humboldti in gill nets, central Chile. Marine Ornithology (ISSN: 1018-3337), 27:157-161. http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/27/27_19.pdf

Simeone, A.; Luna-Jorquera, G.; Bernal, M.; Garthe, S.; Sepúlveda, F.; Villablanca, R.; Ellenberg, U., Contreras, M.; Muñoz, J.; Ponce, T. (2003) – Breeding distribution and abundance of seabirds on islands off north-central Chile. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 76(2):323-333. Santiago, Chile. http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/rchnat/v76n2/art16.pdf

Spear, L.B.; Ainley, D.G.; Ribic, C.A. (1995) – Incidence of Plastic in Seabirds from the Tropical Pacific, 1984-91: Relation with Distribution of Species, Sex, Age, Season, Year and Body Weight. Marine Environmental Research, 40(2):123-146. DOI:10.1016/0141-1136(94)00140-K.

Stucchi, M.; Figueroa, J. (2006) – La avifauna de las islas Lobos de Afuera y algunos alcances sobre su biodiversidad. Reporte de investigación N° 2, p.88, Asociación Ucumari, Lima, Perú.
Subsecretaria de desarrollo regional y administrativo (s/d) – División administrativa de Chile, Gobierno Regional de Atacama, Provincia de Copiapó, Caldera. Gobierno de Chile, Ministerio del Interior. Santiago, Chile. In: http://www.subdere.gov.cl/1510/propertyvalue-24725.html. (accessed 16 June 2010)

Sutinen, J.G. (1997) – A socioeconomic theory for controlling marine debris: is moral suasion a reliable policy tool? In: Coe, J. M. & Rogers, D. B. (eds.), Marine Debris, pp.161-170, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA. ISBN: 0387947590.

Thiel, M.; Gutow, L. (2005) – The ecology of rafting in the marine environment. I. The floating substrata. In: R.N. Gibson, R.J.A. Atkinson & J.D.M. Gordon (eds), Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review, 42:181–263. ISBN: 978-0-8493-2727-8.

Thiel, M.; Hinojosa, I.; Vásquez, N.; Macaya, E. (2003) - Floating marine debris in coastal waters of the SE-Pacific (Chile). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46(2):224-231. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00365-X.

Thiel, M.; Macaya, E.C.; Acuña, E.; Arntz, W.E.; Bastías, H.; Brokordt, K.; Camus, P.; Castilla, J.C.; Castro, L.R.; Cortés, M.; Dumont, C.P.; Escribano, R.; Fernandez, M.; Gajardo, J.A.; Gaymer, C.F.; Gomez, I.; González, A.E.; González, H.E.; Haye, P.A.; Illanes, J.E.; Iriarte, J.L.; Lancellotti, D.A.; Luna-Jorquera, G.; Luxoro, C.; Manriquez, P.H.; Marín, V.; Muñoz, P.; Navarrete, S.A.; Peréz, E.; Poulin, E.; Sellanes, J.; Sepúlveda, H.H.; Stotz, W.; Tala, F.; Thomas, A.; Vargas, C.A.; Vasquez, J.A.; Vega, J.M.A. (2007) – The Humboldt Current system of northern and central Chile oceanographic processes, ecological interactions and socioeconomic feedback. In: R.N. Gibson, R.J.A. Atkinson & J.D.M. Gordon (eds), Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review, 45:195-344. ISBN: 9781420050936.

Thompson, R.C. (2006) – Plastic debris in the marine environment: consequences and solutions. Proceedings of the Symposium “Marine Nature Conservation in Europe”, 107-116, Stralsund, Germany.

Thompson, R.C.; Olsen, Y.; Mitchell, R.P.; Davis, A.; Rowland, S.J.; John, A.W.G.; McGonigle D.; Russell, A.E. (2004) – Lost at sea: where is all the plastic? Science, 304(5672):838. DOI:10.1126/science.1094559.

Tourinho, P.S.; Ivar do Sul, J.A.; Fillmann, G. (2010) - Is marine debris ingestion still a problem for the coastal marine biota of southern Brazil? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 60: 396-4010. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.10.013.

Valenzuela, A.; Retamal, L.M.; Guerra-Correa, C. (2008) – Influencia de la temperatura y fotoperíodo en actividad metabólica y recuperación de obstrucción digestiva por plásticos en Chelonia mydas. II Simposio Tortugas Marinas del Pacifico Sur Oriental, Libro de Resumenes, p.47, Lima, Peru.

Winston, J.E.; Gregory, M.R.; Stevens, L.M. (1997) – Encrusters, epibionts, and other biota associated with pelagic plastics: A review of biogeographical, environmental, and conservation issues. In: Coe, J. M. & Rogers, D. B. (eds.), Marine Debris: Sources, Impacts and Solutions, pp.81-97, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA. (ISBN-10: 0-387-94759-0)

World Health Organization, (2003) - Guidelines for safe recreational water environments. Volume 1, Coastal and fresh waters. 219p., WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data, Geneva.

Zavalaga, C.B.; Paredes, R. (1999) – Foraging behaviour and diet of Guanay cormorant. South African Journal of Marine Science (ISSN: 1814-232X), 21(1):251-258. DOI:10.2989/025776199784125980.

 

em construção